Over the last few days, we have been exploring the enlightenment as a philosophical movement. This movement started as a reaction to the significant advances in math and science, particularly Isaac Newton’s mathematical modeling of planetary movement, which described their orbits without the traditional process of metaphysics, the understanding of the planet’s first principles. From there, the movement followed the scientific principle of skepticism using “prove it”, as the standard for knowledge. We saw how this principle moved from scientific questioning in the sense of proposing hypotheticals that required data to be believed, to skepticism of all standards of knowledge. Of particular interest to us as we continue to explore the ideas that are the foundation of modern western civilization, is to look at how this philosophical movement affected the various political movements at the time.
There were three primary revolutions taking place in the late 1600’s through the 1700’s. England, the American colonies, and the French were all undergoing upheavals that were affected by the enlightenment even as they all took significantly different routes. We saw how the great advances in science naturally caused the thinkers of that time period to look inward at “man as machine”. Meaning, if the earth was no longer the center of the universe, then perhaps neither was God. And the same dissatisfaction with previous models of the universe naturally translated to dissatisfaction with the previous models of man’s divinity. The same scientific skepticism that dominated the movement naturally translated to skepticism with past organizations of society. While Aristotle may have begun the “political science” movement, he did so by looking at the natural world around him and drawing parallels to the ideal political structure. In contrast, the enlightenment philosophers believed that society could be studied and optimized in the same way that the human machine could be studied and optimized. If math could accurately describe the movement of planets then surely it could be used to design a better society.
As a thought process, the enlightenment did a much better job at criticizing the existing forms of government than it did in designing a better system. We recall that it was Plato who said that people could be classified by their balance of reason, spirit, and appetites. Plato felt that those who were in possession of the highest reasoning should naturally rule. The concept of the divine right of kings flows from this idea. Monarchs were kept in check (marginally) by this concept in that they understood that their reign flowed from the Divine, and that they would ultimately have to answer to that same Divine. From the enlightenment we get skepticism of the Divine which naturally leads to a skepticism of a monarchial system. The ideal that men are equal in the eyes of God was a uniquely Christian viewpoint (and very radical when Christ articulated that idea) whereas the equality of the enlightenment was not driven by man’s dignity, but rather by man’s common biology. Since all men are similar creatures, there is no natural order that makes some rulers and others ruled. That common biology concept does have some political implications that were novel for that period in our history. The idea that men have rights, the tolerance of religious differences, and checks and balances, are all reinforced by the enlightenment movement even as we can see some of the same concepts in Judeo – Christian philosophies. I will leave it to others to determine which is the truer source of these concepts but suffice it to say that they gain secular prominence during this time period.
The “Glorious Revolution” also known as the “Bloodless Revolution” took place in England in 1688. There were many religious and political reasons for the revolution but key to this discussion was King James II’s attempt to overthrow parliament and replace it with one more suitable to his wishes. The King winds up in exile in France, William of Orange assumes the throne along with his daughter Mary. They agree to a “Declaration of Rights” later called a “Bill of Rights” that includes a regular parliament, free elections, freedom of speech, and the prohibition of a Catholic from assuming the throne.
The French Revolution was an expressly enlightenment movement. The concepts of “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” come directly from this philosophy. Ironically, this movement served to highlight the limitations of the enlightenment philosophy. What started as a violent overthrow of monarchy, fails to establish a form of governing that matches the philosophy that kindled the movement, and then itself resorts to violence to remain in power. This “reign of terror” marks the official end of the philosophical movement even as the ideas it championed have continued to influence thinking to this day.
Meanwhile, the founding fathers of the revolution across the Atlantic were clearly influenced by Thomas Hobbs. Hobbs supported the power of a political sovereign as a leader, whereas the skepticism of the enlightenment was far more evident in the French revolutionary’s more radical libertarianism. One of the key concepts that the founders took from Hobbs was his ‘social contract’ theory. In it, Hobbs postulates that people group together to advance their own self-interests by allowing for a single political authority over all. In Hobbs’ thinking, this general contract was not the result of any past divine law, but rather based on the enlightenment philosophy of cold reasoning and the dispassionate study of human nature.
We will dig a bit deeper into this philosophy’s influences next time.
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